Advantages & Disadvantages of Grab Sampling

Advantages of grab sampling	Disadvantages of grab sampling
Low cost	inaccurate;
Takes little time	Results depend upon positioning of the tube;
Immediate result	Only a ‘snap shot’ is taken during a small amount of time;
Operators need little experience	The pump may be inefficient or inaccurate in each sample;
Gives indication during emergency spillages, etc.; and	Chemical use only (no dusts); and
Good for ‘coarse’ indication of measurement	Substance specific – the substance sampled must be known.

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General Approach to Hazardous Substance Monitoring:

When embarking upon a monitoring campaign to assess the risk to which an individual may be exposed, it is necessary to ask several questions.

What to Sample?
This involves a review of the materials, processes and operating procedures being used within a process, coupled with discussions with management and health and safety personnel. A brief 'walk¬through' survey can also be useful as a guide to the extent of monitoring that may be necessary. Health and safety data sheets are also of use. When the background work has been completed it can then be decided what is to be measured.

On Whom?
This depends on the size and diversity of the group that the survey relates to. From the group of workers being surveyed the sample to be monitored should be selected; this must be representative of the group and the work undertaken. Selecting the individual with the highest exposure can be a reasonable starting point. If the group is large then random sampling may have to be employed, but care has to be exercised with this approach. The group should also be aware of the reason for sampling.

How long should the sample be for?
There are many considerations when answering this question: what are the control limits; is the hazard acute or chronic; what is our limit of detection; or simply what resources are available?

How is monitoring done?
The particular sampling strategy, based on the hazard presented, is outlined in the following table:

MEASUREMENTS TO DETERMINE	SUITABLE TYPES OF MEASUREMENT
Chronic hazard	Continuous personal dose measurement. Continuous measurements of average background levels. Short-term readings of containment levels at selected positions and times.
Acute hazard	Continuous personal monitoring with rapid response. Continuous background monitoring with rapid response. Short-term readings of background contaminant levels at selected positions and times.
Environmental control status	Continuous background monitoring. Short-term readings of background contaminant levels at selected positions and times.
Whether area is safe to enter	Direct reading instruments.

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Ability to Survive an Electric Shock

The ability to survive an electric shock will depend on:

• The current is amperes: Anything above 25 mA(twenty five thousand of an amp) could be lethal.
• Length of contact time: (Speed of action of fuse or circuit breaker).
• The path through the body: The two most common paths are hand to foot and hand to hand.
• The conductivity / resistance of the body: This varies among individuals and circumstances e.g. sweating will increase conductivity of the skin.
• The voltage: The higher the voltage the easier it is for the current to overcome the resistance. Voltages below 50V and preferably below 25V are preferred.
• The conductivity of  the environment: A shock received in a wet area would probably be more severe than in a dry area.
• The nature of the contact: A small contact area will tend to resist flow whist full hand contact can lead to lock-­on which means the hand is unable to let go.
• Age and health status of victim.

In the event of some receiving an electric shock the following points should be observed:

• Do not touch injured person until the current is switched off.
• If the current cannot be switched off stand on some dry insulating material and use a wooden or plastic implement to remove the injured person from the electrical source.
• If breathing has stopped give mouth to mouth resuscitation.
• Ensure professional help has been called for.

Common causes of electric shock include:

• Work on electrical circuits by unqualified persons.
• Work on live circuits.
• Replacement of fuses and light bulbs on supposedly dead circuits.
• Working on de-­energised circuits that accidentally become re-­energized.
• Using electrical equipment in a wet Environment.
• Faults in electrical systems, which energize parts that are not normally conductors, for example, the casing of electrical equipment.

HEALTH EFFECTS

The various health effects of electric shock include: damage to nervous system; irregular heartbeat (fibrillation); internal burns; muscular contractions; physical trauma; stopping breathing (respiratory paralysis); stopping the heart (cardiac arrest); and surface burns to the skin.

Such health effects may be so severe that they ultimately result in death. They may also result in secondary effects such as being thrown off a ladder.

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Electric Shock and Its Effects on the Body

The Electric Shock can occur in two ways:

Direct Contact: means a contact of a person or implement a person is holding with a live conductor that is supposed to be live. This may be caused by: unsafe work practices, e.g. touching an overhead power line with a scaffold pole; and faulty or ineffective insulation of conductors, e.g. damaged insulation or cracked plugs;

Indirect Contact: which occurs when there is contact with a conductor that should not be live under normal conditions, but is live through a fault: poorly designed or maintained electrical equipment or circuits which ‘Short Circuit’, the current taking an unintended path to earth, e.g. where the damaged insulation on an electric drill touches a steel workbench; and electrical equipment being used in an environment for which it is unsuitable, e.g. use of 230V tools outdoors in the rain.

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Ten Simple Rules for Waste Storage

There are Ten Simple Rules for Waste Storage which are Outlined below:

• Ensure the storage area is of sufficient size and is suitably located, i.e. away from drains, water courses, etc.
• Clearly label the storage area, and individual containers to advise of contents and hazardous properties.
• Ensure the storage area is secure and protected from accidental or malicious damage.
• If necessary protect the storage area with bunds and rainwater collection sumps to minimize the risk of water pollution
• Store different waste types separately to avoid confusion
• Never store incompatible wastes together
• Select the appropriate container for the waste and ensure it is in good condition
• Keep quantities of waste and storage times to a minimum
• Protect the waste from the elements (sunlight, rain and wind) if necessary; and
• Do not dispose of unusual wastes in a general waste skip.

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Permit To Work

Permit To Work
A formal written system that authorizes specific work, at a specific work location, for a specific time period. It is used to control and coordinate potentially hazardous work by ensuring that all foreseeable hazards have been considered and appropriate precautions have been defined.

Types of Permit to Work
1. Hot Work Permit

2. Cold Work Permit

3. Confined Space Entry Permit

4. Height work permit

5. Electrical work permit

6. Excavation work permit

7. Scaffolding work permit 

8. Radiography work permit

Why use a work permit?

All work opens the specialist to some level of risk. This level of danger decides the sort of shields required to ensure the laborer. Most standard work has characterized safe work practices or methodology. Without such methodology, safe work licenses ought to be utilized. Workers engaged in maintenance work may be at risk if the machinery they are working on is started unexpectedly. Such hardware and gear should be segregated by blanking, blinding, or a force lockout framework.

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Manufacturers Health and Safety Data Sheet (MSDS)

Hazard Communication legislation requires suppliers of hazardous substances to provide safety data sheets. The basic design and section headings for this document generally follow a globally used standard (based on an ANSI/ISO standard).

Safety Data Sheets must contain the following information in 16 sections:

1. Identification of the substance or preparation and supplier – its commercial name, identical to that on the label. The supplier – name, address and emergency contact phone numbers.
2. Composition and Information on ingredients – chemical names.
3. Hazard Identification – a summary of the most important features, including likely adverse human health effects and symptoms.
4. First Aid measures – separated for the various risks, and specific, practical and easily understood.
5. Fire-­fighting measures – emphasising any special requirements.
6. Accidental release measures – covering safety, environmental protection and clean-­ up.
7. Handling and Storage – recommendations for best practice, including any special storage conditions or incompatible materials.
8. Exposure Controls and personal protection – any specific recommendations, such as particular ventilation systems and PPE.
9. Physical and Chemical properties – physical, stability and solubility properties.
10. Stability and reactivity – conditions and materials to avoid.
11. Toxicological Information – acute and chronic effects, routes of exposure and symptoms.
12. Ecological Information – environmental fate of the chemical and its effects, which could include patterns of degradation and effects on aquatic, soil and terrestrial organisms, etc.
13. Disposal Considerations – advice on specific dangers and legislation.
14. Transport Information – special precautions.
15. Regulatory Information - overall classification of the product and any specific legislation that may be applicable.
16. Other Information – any additional relevant information not captured in preceding sections (e.g. explanation of abbreviations used, product disclaimers).

Section 5 of the ILO Code for "Safety in the Use of Chemicals at Work" sets out a requirement that:

"The supplier should provide an employer with essential information about hazardous chemicals in the form of a chemical safety data sheet. The information should be given in the official language of the country in which the employer is located or in another language, agreed to in writing by the employer".

The "Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labelling of Chemicals (GHS)" requirement for safety data sheets (SDS) only relates to occupational situations. In general, SD information is not required or provided for:

• The offer or sale of dangerous substances or mixtures to the general public provided sufficient information is provided to enable users to take the necessary measures as regards safety, protection of human health and the environment.
• If the substances/mixtures are not classified as dangerous.

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Routes of Entry of Hazardous Substances

Inhalation:
This is the most important route of entry as it allows the substance to directly attack lung tissue and, in some cases, to enter the blood stream and attack other organs of the body. The lungs are an active pump, drawing in air from the environment and the majority of occupational ill-­health produced by agents is caused by inhalation. Gases, such as carbon monoxide, enter the body by inhalation.

Ingestion:
occurs through the mouth. This can be accidental - such as by drinking from an unlabelled container or by poor hygiene -  eating, drinking or smoking in a contaminated environment. Respiratory defence mechanisms also push inhaled particles, such as dusts, into the throat and mouth, most of which will then be swallowed;

Absorption:
Occurs through the skin and across membranes, e.g. ammonia into the eye. Many solvents will penetrate unbroken skin and can enter the blood stream. Other substances can enter via cuts or abrasions;

Direct Entry:
Occurs through open wounds on the skin, such as dermatitis, tetanus infection and leptospirosis (Weil’s disease) from female rat urine;

Injection (skin puncture):
Caused by contact with liquids or gases under pressure or accidental puncture of the skin with contaminated sharp objects, e.g. HIV.

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CLASSIFICATION OF HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCE

Irritant:
(Xi) non-­‐corrosive substances, which, through immediate, prolonged or repeated contact with the skin or mucous membrane, may cause inflammation, e.g. petrol, detergent, nuisance dusts.

Corrosive:
(C) substances, which, on contact with living tissue, may destroy it by burning, e.g. hydrochloric acid or strong alkalis such as ammonia.

• Acids: Sulphuric acid; hydrochloric acid; nitric acid; phosphoric acids.
• Alkalis: Sodium hydroxide (caustic soda); potassium hydroxide (caustic potash).
• Gases and vapours: Hydrogen chloride is a colourless gas that in moist air appears as a white mist which is poisonous and corrosive. Many corrosive liquids expel damaging corrosive vapours which are irritating or cause burns to the eyes or respiratory tract.

Harmful:
(Xn) substances, which, if swallowed, inhaled or penetrate the skin, may cause damage to health. E.g.: Category 3 carcinogens, mutagens and teratogens.

Very Toxic:
(T+) poisonous substances, which, in very low quantities, may cause death, acute or chronic damage to health.

Toxic:
(T) a poisonous substance, which, in low quantities, may cause death, acute or chronic damage to health when inhaled, swallowed or absorbed via the skin. Some substances (such as potassium cyanide) can cause death in extremely small quantities. Insecticides are toxic to insects but the quantity used is restricted so they are not harmful to humans, though it might be necessary for persons applying it extensively to wear protective equipment to reduce their exposure.

Sensitising:
These are substances and preparations that may cause an allergic reaction.

Carcinogenic (Carc Categories 1 and 2):
substances, which cause disorders to cell growth that may lead to cancer or increase its incidence.

Mutagenic (Muta Categories 1 and 2):
substances, which induce heritable genetic defects or increase their incidence.

Toxic for reproduction (Teratogenic):
(Repr Categories 1 and 2) substances, which produce or increase the incidence of non-­heritable effects in progeny and/or impairment in reproductive functions or capacity.

The last three items are commonly grouped together and known collectively as “CMR” effects. Note that in classifying a particular chemical the hazards it presents may lie within any or all of the general classifications and more than one class of danger may be identified. Thus nitric acid in high concentration is classified as both oxidising and corrosive.

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